Calvinism vs Presbyterianism: Decoding the Differences

What are the main beliefs of Presbyterianism and Calvinism?

As we explore the main beliefs of Presbyterianism and Calvinism, we must approach this topic with both spiritual discernment and historical understanding. These two Protestant traditions share many core beliefs, rooted in the theology of John Calvin and other Reformers of the 16th century.

At the heart of both Presbyterianism and Calvinism is the doctrine of the sovereignty of God. This belief emphasizes that God is in complete control of all things, including the salvation of individuals. This leads to the doctrine of predestination, which holds that God has chosen some individuals for salvation before the foundation of the world.

Another central belief is the authority of Scripture. Both traditions affirm the Bible as the inspired Word of God and the ultimate authority for faith and practice. This emphasis on Scripture alone (sola scriptura) is a hallmark of Protestant theology.

The doctrine of total depravity is also crucial to both Presbyterianism and Calvinism. This teaches that sin has affected every aspect of human nature, rendering us incapable of choosing God or doing good without divine intervention. This understanding of human nature leads to a strong emphasis on the necessity of God’s grace for salvation.

Both traditions also affirm the doctrine of justification by faith alone (sola fide). This teaches that we are made right with God not by our own works or merit, but solely through faith in Jesus Christ. This faith itself is seen as a gift from God, not something we can generate on our own.

The perseverance of the often referred to as “eternal security” or “once saved, always saved,” is another shared belief. This doctrine teaches that those whom God has chosen for salvation will inevitably persevere in faith until the end.

In terms of church governance, Presbyterianism is distinguished by its system of representative democracy, with authority vested in elected elders (presbyters). This is in contrast to episcopal systems (with bishops) or congregational systems. Calvinism, as a broader theological system, can be found in various forms of church governance.

Both traditions emphasize the importance of the sacraments, particularly baptism and the Lord’s Supper, though they view these as signs and seals of God’s grace rather than means of conferring grace in themselves.

Psychologically we can see how these beliefs might shape an individual’s worldview and sense of self. The emphasis on God’s sovereignty and human depravity could lead to a deep sense of humility and dependence on divine grace. At the same time, the assurance of election and perseverance might provide a strong sense of security and purpose.

Historically, these beliefs have had powerful impacts on the societies where they took root. The emphasis on education to enable Bible reading, the work ethic often associated with Calvinism, and the democratic principles of Presbyterian governance have all left their mark on Western culture.

How did Presbyterianism and Calvinism begin?

To understand the origins of Presbyterianism and Calvinism, we must journey back to the tumultuous period of the Protestant Reformation in 16th century Europe. This was a time of great spiritual and social upheaval, when many were questioning the established religious order and seeking to reform the Church according to their understanding of Scripture.

Calvinism, as a theological system, takes its name from John Calvin (1509-1564), a French theologian and pastor who became a key figure in the Swiss Reformation. Calvin’s seminal work, “Institutes of the Christian Religion,” first published in 1536 and revised several times, laid out a comprehensive system of Protestant theology that would become the foundation of Reformed churches worldwide.

Calvin’s ideas spread rapidly across Europe, influencing reformers in many countries. In Scotland, John Knox, who had studied under Calvin in Geneva, became the driving force behind the Scottish Reformation. Knox’s efforts led to the establishment of the Church of Scotland in 1560, which adopted a Presbyterian form of church government.

The term “Presbyterian” comes from the Greek word “presbyteros,” meaning “elder.” This reflects the form of church governance advocated by Calvin and implemented by Knox, where the church is led by elected elders rather than bishops. This system was seen as more faithful to the New Testament model of church leadership.

Presbyterianism, therefore, can be understood as a specific expression of Calvinist theology, particularly in its approach to church governance. While Calvinism as a theological system can be found in various denominational contexts, Presbyterianism specifically refers to churches that combine Calvinist theology with Presbyterian church government.

In England, Puritan reformers influenced by Calvin’s ideas sought to “purify” the Church of England of what they saw as unbiblical practices. Some of these Puritans, known as “Presbyterians,” advocated for a Presbyterian form of church government. But their efforts were largely unsuccessful in England, leading many to seek religious freedom in the New World.

In the American colonies, Presbyterianism took root and flourished. The first presbytery in America was organized in Philadelphia in 1706, marking the formal establishment of Presbyterianism in the New World. The Presbyterian Church played a major role in the American Revolution and the early years of the United States.

Psychologically we can see how the doctrines of Calvinism and the structures of Presbyterianism appealed to those seeking certainty and order in a time of great change. The emphasis on God’s sovereignty and the clear system of church governance provided a sense of stability and purpose.

Historically, the spread of Calvinism and Presbyterianism had powerful effects on the societies where they took root. In Scotland, the emphasis on education led to the establishment of schools in every parish, significantly increasing literacy rates. In the American colonies, Presbyterian principles of representative government influenced the development of democratic institutions.

While Calvinism and Presbyterianism began as reform movements, they quickly became established traditions in their own right. Over time, they have undergone their own processes of reform and renewal, adapting to new contexts while striving to maintain fidelity to their founding principles.

What are the similarities between Presbyterians and Calvinists?

Both Presbyterians and Calvinists adhere to the doctrine of God’s sovereignty. This belief holds that God is in complete control of all events in the universe, including the salvation of individuals. This understanding of divine sovereignty leads to the doctrine of predestination, which both groups affirm. They believe that God, in His infinite wisdom and mercy, has chosen some for salvation before the foundation of the world.

Another crucial similarity is their high view of Scripture. Both Presbyterians and Calvinists hold to the principle of sola scriptura, meaning “Scripture alone.” They believe the Bible is the inspired Word of God and the ultimate authority for faith and practice. This emphasis on biblical authority shapes their approach to theology, worship, and Christian living.

Both groups also share a common understanding of human nature, often referred to as the doctrine of total depravity. This teaches that sin has affected every aspect of human beings, rendering us incapable of choosing God or doing good without divine intervention. This view of human nature underscores the necessity of God’s grace for salvation.

The doctrine of justification by faith alone (sola fide) is another key similarity. Both Presbyterians and Calvinists teach that we are made right with God not by our own works or merit, but solely through faith in Jesus Christ. This faith itself is understood as a gift from God, not something we can generate on our own.

Both traditions also affirm the perseverance of the often referred to as “eternal security.” This doctrine teaches that those whom God has chosen for salvation will inevitably persevere in faith until the end. This belief provides a sense of assurance and comfort to believers.

In terms of sacramental theology, both Presbyterians and Calvinists recognize two sacraments: baptism and the Lord’s Supper. They view these as signs and seals of God’s grace, rather than means of conferring grace in themselves. This is in contrast to the Catholic understanding of the sacraments.

Psychologically we can see how these shared beliefs might shape the worldview and self-understanding of adherents. The emphasis on God’s sovereignty and human depravity could foster a deep sense of humility and dependence on divine grace. At the same time, the assurance of election and perseverance might provide a strong sense of security and purpose.

Historically, both Presbyterians and Calvinists have placed a high value on education. This stems from their belief in the importance of being able to read and understand Scripture for oneself. This emphasis on education has had major cultural impacts in areas where these traditions have been influential.

Both groups have also traditionally emphasized the importance of disciplined living and hard work, often referred to as the “Protestant work ethic.” This has been linked to economic development in some Calvinist and Presbyterian societies.

Although these similarities are major, there can be variations in how these beliefs are understood and applied within different Presbyterian and Calvinist communities. The shared theological heritage does not always translate into uniformity of practice or interpretation.

What are the differences between Presbyterians and Calvinists?

It’s crucial to understand that Calvinism is a theological system, while Presbyterianism is a specific denomination that adheres to Calvinist theology. In this sense, all Presbyterians are Calvinists, but not all Calvinists are Presbyterians. Calvinism can be found in various denominations, including some Baptist, Congregationalist, and Reformed churches.

The most major difference lies in church governance. Presbyterianism is defined by its system of representative democracy, where authority is vested in elected elders (presbyters). This system is seen as a middle ground between episcopal systems (with bishops) and congregational systems. Calvinists in other denominations may have different forms of church government. For example, Reformed Baptists typically have a congregational polity.

Another area of difference can be found in the practice of baptism. While both Presbyterians and Calvinists view baptism as a sign and seal of God’s covenant, they may differ on who should receive baptism. Presbyterians typically practice infant baptism, believing that the children of believers are part of the covenant community. Some Calvinist groups, particularly those in Baptist traditions, practice believer’s baptism, administering the sacrament only to those who can profess their faith.

The interpretation and application of predestination can also vary. While both affirm the doctrine, some Calvinist groups may emphasize it more strongly or interpret it more rigidly than some Presbyterian churches. This can lead to differences in how evangelism and missions are approached.

Psychologically these differences in practice and emphasis can shape the religious experience of adherents. For instance, the Presbyterian system of governance might foster a sense of shared responsibility and community involvement, while a more hierarchical system might emphasize submission to authority.

Historically, these differences have led to the formation of distinct denominational identities. In the United States, for example, the Presbyterian Church has its own unique history and cultural associations, distinct from other Calvinist denominations.

Within Presbyterianism itself, there can be major variations. Some Presbyterian denominations are more conservative in their theology and practice, while others are more liberal. This diversity reflects different responses to cultural changes and theological developments over time.

The level of ecumenical engagement can also differ. Some Presbyterian churches have been active in ecumenical movements, seeking cooperation with other Christian denominations. Other Calvinist groups may be more separatist in their approach.

Social and political engagement is another area where differences can emerge. While both Presbyterians and Calvinists have traditionally been involved in social issues, the specific causes and methods of engagement can vary widely between different groups.

Liturgical practices can also differ. While both tend towards a relatively simple, Word-centered worship style, there can be variations in the use of music, the structure of services, and the observance of the church calendar.

It’s important to understand that these differences are not absolute. There is often more variation within these broad categories than between them. Individual congregations and believers may not neatly fit into these generalizations.

What did the early Church Fathers teach about predestination and free will?

The early Fathers did not approach these issues with the systematic theology that would develop later. Their teachings often emerged in response to specific pastoral or apologetic concerns, and they did not always use terms in the same way we might today.

Many of the early Fathers emphasized human free will, seeing it as essential to moral responsibility. Justin Martyr, writing in the 2nd century, argued that humans have the power to choose good or evil, and that this choice determines their eternal destiny. Irenaeus, also in the 2nd century, taught that God created humans with free will, and that the exercise of this will is crucial to human growth and development in the image of God.

But these same Fathers also recognized the necessity of God’s grace. They understood that human will, while free, is also fallen and in need of divine assistance. Origen, in the 3rd century, spoke of a synergy between human free will and divine grace, where both work together in the process of salvation.

The concept of predestination, as understood in later Calvinist theology, was not fully developed in the early church. But we do find elements that point towards it. Clement of Rome, writing at the end of the 1st century, spoke of God’s elect, chosen before the foundation of the world. This idea of divine election is present in many of the Fathers, though often balanced with affirmations of human responsibility.

As we move into the 4th and 5th centuries, we see these ideas being developed more fully. St. Augustine of Hippo, whose writings would greatly influence later Western theology, emphasized God’s sovereignty in salvation. He taught that God’s grace is necessary not only to save us but even to enable us to choose God. This led him to a strong doctrine of predestination, though not identical to later Calvinist formulations.

But it’s crucial to understand that Augustine’s views were not universally accepted. In the Eastern theologians like John Chrysostom continued to emphasize human free will alongside divine grace. This difference in emphasis would contribute to the later divergence between Eastern and Western Christianity on these issues.

Psychologically we can see how these different emphases might shape one’s understanding of self and relationship with God. A strong emphasis on free will might foster a sense of personal responsibility and agency, while a focus on predestination could provide a sense of security and dependence on God.

Historically, these early debates set the stage for later theological developments. The teachings of the Fathers would be revisited and reinterpreted by medieval scholastics, Reformation theologians, and modern thinkers, each bringing their own context and concerns to the discussion.

The Fathers’ teachings on these issues were often more nuanced and varied than later summaries might suggest. They were wrestling with powerful mysteries of faith, and their writings often reflect the tension between divine sovereignty and human responsibility that we still grapple with today.

How do Presbyterian and Calvinist churches govern themselves?

At the heart of Presbyterian and Calvinist church governance is the principle of rule by elders, or “presbyters” – hence the term “Presbyterian.” This system emerged from the Protestant Reformation, particularly through the work of John Calvin in Geneva and John Knox in Scotland. It stands in contrast to both the hierarchical episcopacy of Catholic and Anglican traditions and the congregationalism of some other Protestant groups.

In the Presbyterian system, authority is distributed among different levels of church courts or councils. At the local level, we find the Session, composed of elected elders (both teaching elders, or ministers, and ruling elders from the congregation) who oversee the spiritual and administrative affairs of the individual church. Above this, we have the Presbytery, which governs a group of churches in a particular region. Further up, there are Synods and General Assemblies, which have authority over progressively larger areas.

This system reflects a powerful theological conviction: that Christ alone is the head of the and that His authority is mediated not through a single individual or office, but through the collective discernment of elected representatives. this structure provides a balance between the need for order and the recognition of human fallibility.

Historically, this form of governance emerged as a middle way between the autocracy of some church structures and the potential chaos of pure congregationalism. It sought to provide accountability while still allowing for local autonomy. The Scottish reformer Andrew Melville famously told King James VI, “There are two kings and two kingdoms in Scotland… Christ Jesus the King and this kingdom of which James VI is the subject, not the head.”

In practice, this system operates through regular meetings of these various councils, where decisions are made through discussion, debate, and voting. Importantly, there is a system of appeals, allowing decisions to be reviewed by higher courts. This reflects a recognition of the need for both local discernment and wider accountability.

It’s crucial to note that while all Presbyterian churches share this basic structure, there can be major variations in how it is implemented. Some denominations give more authority to higher courts, while others emphasize local autonomy. These differences often reflect varying interpretations of Scripture and historical tradition.

Psychologically this system of governance can provide a sense of participation and ownership for church members, as they elect their leaders and have representation at various levels. But it can also lead to tensions between different levels of authority and potentially slow decision-making processes.

I urge you to see in these structures not mere bureaucracy, but an attempt to embody the biblical principles of shared leadership, mutual accountability, and the priesthood of all believers. Let us remember that all church governance, whatever its form, should serve the ultimate purpose of building up the body of Christ and furthering the mission of the Gospel.

While Presbyterian and Calvinist church governance may seem complex, at its heart it is an earnest attempt to order the church in a way that honors Christ’s headship and involves the whole people of God in discerning His will. May we always seek to exercise whatever authority we have in the church with humility, wisdom, and love.

What do Presbyterians and Calvinists believe about salvation?

At the heart of Presbyterian and Calvinist soteriology – that is, their doctrine of salvation – lies the concept of God’s sovereignty. This emphasis on divine sovereignty is often encapsulated in the acronym TULIP, which stands for Total Depravity, Unconditional Election, Limited Atonement, Irresistible Grace, and Perseverance of the Saints. While not all Presbyterians and Calvinists would articulate their beliefs exactly in these terms, this framework provides a useful starting point for our discussion.

Total Depravity refers to the belief that sin has affected every aspect of human nature, rendering us incapable of choosing God or doing spiritual good without divine intervention. This doctrine reflects a powerful awareness of the depth of human sinfulness and our utter dependence on God’s grace. this belief can lead to both humility and a deep sense of gratitude for God’s mercy.

Unconditional Election is the teaching that God, in His sovereign will, has chosen some for salvation apart from any foreseen merit or faith on their part. This doctrine emphasizes the gratuitous nature of God’s grace and the ultimate source of salvation in God’s eternal decree. Historically, this belief has been a source of both comfort and controversy within the Christian community.

Limited Atonement, perhaps the most debated of these doctrines, suggests that Christ’s atoning work, while sufficient for all, was intended to secure the salvation of the elect. This belief seeks to maintain a connection between God’s sovereign choice and the efficacy of Christ’s sacrifice. many Presbyterians prefer the term “particular redemption” to emphasize the personal nature of Christ’s saving work.

Irresistible Grace teaches that God’s call to the elect is effectual, overcoming their resistance and bringing them to faith. This doctrine highlights the power of God’s love to transform even the most hardened heart. From a pastoral perspective, this belief can provide great hope for those praying for the conversion of loved ones.

Finally, Perseverance of the Saints affirms that those who are truly regenerated will persevere in faith to the end. This doctrine provides assurance of salvation while also emphasizing the importance of continuing in faith and obedience.

It’s crucial to understand that these doctrines are not meant to be abstract theological speculations, but rather to highlight the gracious nature of salvation and to give all glory to God. As the Westminster Confession of Faith, a key Presbyterian document, states, “The chief end of man is to glorify God and enjoy Him forever.”

Psychologically these beliefs about salvation can have powerful effects on one’s spiritual life. They can foster a deep sense of humility, gratitude, and dependence on God. But they can also, if misunderstood, lead to anxiety about one’s election or a passive approach to evangelism and Christian living.

I urge you to approach these doctrines not as points of division, but as invitations to marvel at the mystery of God’s grace. Although we may not all agree on every aspect of how salvation is accomplished, we can all rejoice in the glorious truth that “God so loved the world that He gave His only begotten Son, that whoever believes in Him should not perish but have everlasting life” (John 3:16).

How do Presbyterian and Calvinist worship services compare?

Presbyterian and Calvinist worship services, rooted in the Reformed tradition, are characterized by a strong emphasis on the centrality of God’s Word and the participation of the entire congregation. This focus stems from the Reformation principle of sola Scriptura (Scripture alone) and the belief in the priesthood of all believers. As a result, these services often have a more austere and word-centered character compared to some other Christian traditions.

Typically, a Presbyterian or Calvinist worship service will include several key elements: the reading and preaching of Scripture, congregational singing, prayer, and the administration of the sacraments (baptism and the Lord’s Supper). The order and emphasis of these elements may vary, but they form the core of most Reformed worship.

The sermon holds a place of particular importance in these services. Historically, Calvinist preachers have emphasized expository preaching, systematically working through books of the Bible to explain and apply God’s Word. This reflects the belief that it is through the preaching of the Word that God primarily speaks to His people. this emphasis on intellectual engagement with Scripture can foster a deep, reflective faith.

Music in Presbyterian and Calvinist worship has traditionally been congregational and text-focused. The Psalms have played a major role, with some traditions practicing exclusive psalmody. Hymns, particularly those rich in theological content, are also common. In recent years, many Presbyterian churches have incorporated more contemporary music styles, though often still with an emphasis on substantive lyrics.

Prayer is another crucial element of these services. This typically includes adoration, confession, thanksgiving, and supplication, often following a set liturgical form. The use of written prayers, including historic Reformed confessions, is common in many Presbyterian churches. This practice can provide a sense of connection to the broader Christian tradition and help worshippers articulate their faith.

The sacraments are viewed as visible signs and seals of God’s covenant promises. Baptism is typically administered to infants of believing parents as well as adult converts, reflecting the Reformed understanding of covenant theology. The Lord’s Supper is celebrated with varying frequency, from weekly to quarterly, depending on the particular church tradition.

Although these are general characteristics, there can be major variation among Presbyterian and Calvinist churches. Some maintain a more formal, traditional style of worship, while others have adopted more contemporary forms. This diversity reflects ongoing debates within Reformed circles about how to maintain theological fidelity while also engaging with contemporary culture.

Psychologically the structured nature of many Presbyterian and Calvinist services can provide a sense of stability and continuity for worshippers. The emphasis on intellectual engagement can foster a deep, thoughtful faith. But there is also a recognition of the need for emotional and experiential aspects of worship, albeit often expressed in more restrained ways than in some other traditions.

I encourage you to see in these worship practices not mere external forms, but earnest attempts to honor God and nurture faith in accordance with Reformed theological convictions. Whether in the careful exposition of Scripture, the communal singing of doctrinally rich hymns, or the reverent celebration of the sacraments, these services seek to direct the worshipper’s attention to the glory and grace of God.

While Presbyterian and Calvinist worship may seem austere to some, at its best it offers a powerful encounter with the living God through His Word and sacraments. May we all, whatever our tradition, seek to worship in spirit and in truth, offering to God the praise and adoration He so richly deserves.

Are all Presbyterians Calvinists? Why or why not?

To answer the question directly: no, not all Presbyterians are Calvinists, although historically, Presbyterianism has been closely associated with Calvinist theology. This relationship, and its variations, reflect the dynamic nature of religious thought and practice over time.

Presbyterianism, as a system of church governance, emerged from the Protestant Reformation, particularly through the work of John Calvin in Geneva and John Knox in Scotland. Calvin’s theological ideas, often summarized in the acronym TULIP (Total Depravity, Unconditional Election, Limited Atonement, Irresistible Grace, and Perseverance of the Saints), became foundational for many Presbyterian churches. The Westminster Confession of Faith, a key Presbyterian doctrinal statement, reflects many Calvinist tenets.

But over time, various Presbyterian denominations and individual churches have developed different relationships to Calvinist theology. Some have maintained a strong commitment to traditional Calvinist doctrines, while others have moved towards more moderate or even liberal theological positions.

In the United States, for example, the 19th and early 20th centuries saw major debates within Presbyterian circles over Calvinist orthodoxy. The “Old School-New School” controversy of the 1830s and the fundamentalist-modernist controversy of the early 1900s both involved disagreements over how strictly to adhere to Calvinist theology. These debates led to divisions within American Presbyterianism, resulting in denominations with varying degrees of commitment to Calvinist doctrine.

Today, we find a spectrum of theological positions within global Presbyterianism. Some denominations, such as the Presbyterian Church in America (PCA) and the Orthodox Presbyterian Church (OPC), maintain a strong commitment to Calvinist theology. Others, like the Presbyterian Church (USA), encompass a broader range of theological perspectives, including some that diverge significantly from traditional Calvinism.

Psychologically this diversity within Presbyterianism reflects the human need for both continuity and adaptation. Some find great comfort and meaning in traditional Calvinist doctrines, seeing in them a coherent and God-glorifying understanding of salvation. Others, influenced by changing cultural contexts and new theological insights, have sought to reinterpret or move beyond certain aspects of Calvinism.

Even among those Presbyterians who do not fully embrace Calvinist theology, there often remains a “Calvinist accent” in their approach to faith. This might be seen in an emphasis on God’s sovereignty, a high view of Scripture, or a structured approach to worship and church life.

I urge you to approach these differences within Presbyterianism not as cause for division, but as an opportunity for dialogue and mutual understanding. While doctrinal clarity is important, we must remember that our unity in Christ transcends our theological distinctions.

The relationship between Presbyterianism and Calvinism is complex and evolving. While historically closely linked, today we find a diversity of theological perspectives within the Presbyterian tradition. May this diversity remind us of the richness of God’s truth and the limitations of our human understanding. Let us hold our convictions with humility, always seeking to grow in our knowledge and love of God, and in our love for one another.

How have Presbyterian and Calvinist ideas shaped Christianity today?

The impact of Presbyterian and Calvinist thought on Christianity today is powerful and layered, touching areas of theology governance, social engagement, and even secular society. Let us explore some key areas of influence.

In the realm of theology, Calvinist ideas about God’s sovereignty and human depravity continue to shape discussions about salvation, free will, and the nature of God. The concept of predestination, while controversial, has prompted deep reflection on the nature of divine grace and human responsibility. Even those who reject Calvinist soteriology often define their positions in relation to it, demonstrating its enduring significance in theological discourse.

The Reformed emphasis on the authority of Scripture has had a lasting impact on biblical interpretation and the role of the Bible in Christian life. The practice of expository preaching, common in many evangelical churches today, owes much to the Calvinist tradition of systematic biblical exposition.

In terms of church governance, the Presbyterian system of rule by elders has influenced many Protestant denominations beyond traditional Presbyterian churches. The concept of distributed authority and checks and balances in church leadership reflects Reformed ecclesiology and has shaped ideas about church polity across various traditions.

The Calvinist emphasis on the “cultural mandate” – the belief that Christians are called to engage with and transform all areas of life for God’s glory – has had major societal impact. This worldview has inspired Christians to be active in education, politics, the arts, and social reform. The establishment of Christian schools and colleges, the involvement of Christians in public life, and the development of a distinctively Christian approach to various academic disciplines all owe much to this Calvinist perspective.

The Presbyterian and Calvinist tradition has made major contributions to the field of Christian education. The catechetical tradition, exemplified by documents like the Westminster Shorter Catechism, has shaped approaches to Christian formation in many denominations. The emphasis on an educated clergy and laity has fostered a culture of theological literacy that continues to influence many parts of the church today.

In the realm of worship, Although the austerity of traditional Calvinist services is less common today, the emphasis on congregational participation and the centrality of the Word continues to shape worship practices in many churches. The rich tradition of Reformed hymnody has contributed significantly to the corpus of Christian music used across denominations.

Psychologically Calvinist ideas have influenced how many Christians understand human nature, motivation, and behavior. The doctrine of total depravity, for instance, aligns in some ways with psychological insights about the pervasiveness of self-interest in human behavior. The emphasis on God’s sovereignty can provide a framework for dealing with life’s uncertainties and challenges.