How and when was the canon of the Bible put together?

A Journey of Faith Through Time: How God Gave Us the Bible

For so many of us, the Bible is a source of comfort, guidance, and life-changing truth. We hold it in our hands, feel its familiar weight, and turn its pages to hear God’s voice. But have you ever paused to wonder about the incredible journey this book has taken through history? How did these specific letters, prophecies, and stories come together to form the single volume we cherish today? This question isn’t a reason for doubt; it’s a beautiful invitation from God to see His faithful hand at work across thousands of years.

The Bible didn’t fall from the sky, complete and leather-bound. Nor was it assembled by a secret committee in a dark room. The truth is far more wonderful. The Bible is a divine library, a collection of sacred books written over 1,500 years by more than 40 different authors, all inspired by God.¹ The story of how these books were gathered and recognized by God’s people is called the story of the

canon. It is one of the most powerful and faith-affirming stories in history, revealing a God who not only speaks His Word but also carefully preserves it for His children.

This article will take you on that journey. We will explore what the “canon” is, how the Old Testament was formed and trusted by Jesus Himself, what prompted the need for a New Testament, and how the early guided by the Holy Spirit, recognized the books that would shape lives for millennia.

What Does It Mean That the Bible Has a “Canon”?

To understand how the Bible was put together, we first need to understand the word “canon.” The term comes from the Greek word kanōn, which originally meant a “reed” or a “measuring stick”.³ In the ancient world, a reed was a tool for measuring, a standard of straightness and accuracy. For early Christians, this word became the perfect metaphor for the collection of books that “measured up” to the standard of being God’s inspired and authoritative Word. The canon is the official list of books that serve as our “rule of faith and life”.⁵

It’s essential to remember that the Bible is not a single book but a library—an anthology of writings that tell one grand, overarching story of God’s redemption.² Protestant Bibles contain 66 distinct books, written in various genres like history, poetry, law, prophecy, and personal letters, by a diverse group of people over many centuries.² The canon is simply the recognized collection of these specific books.

This leads to one of the most important and faith-building truths about the Bible’s formation. The Church did not create the canon in the sense that it made certain books holy. Rather, the through a long process of prayerful use and Spirit-led discernment, recognized the divine authority that was already present in these God-breathed writings.⁴ The books were included in the canon because they were inspired by God; they were not inspired by God because they were included in the canon.¹⁰ This powerful distinction pushes back against the cynical idea that the Bible was merely a human invention created to consolidate power.¹¹ God was the author, and His people were the ones who recognized His voice.

The very idea of a “canon” as a fixed measuring stick implies a finished and complete collection. The process of canonization was a process of closing the list of authoritative books to clearly distinguish God’s Word from the many other religious writings that were circulating at the time.⁸ For the Christian holding a Bible today, this provides a powerful sense of security. The Bible is not an open-ended collection that might change tomorrow. It is a complete and finished revelation, a “faith that was once for all delivered to the saints,” a sacred trust we can depend on completely.¹⁰

How Was the Old Testament Formed and Recognized?

The Old Testament did not appear all at once. Its 39 books were written over a vast stretch of time, more than a thousand years from roughly 1400 B.C. To 400 B.C..¹⁰ The process of its recognition as Scripture began with its very first writings. Foundational texts, like the Law of Moses (the Torah or Pentateuch), were accepted as God’s Word from the moment they were written. The book of Deuteronomy even records Moses commanding the Levites to place “this Book of the Law…beside the ark of the covenant of the LORD” as a permanent witness.¹⁴

A beautiful clue to its formation lies in the traditional three-part structure used by the Jewish people: The Law (Torah), the Prophets (Nevi’im), and the Writings (Ketuvim).⁶ This division likely reflects the historical stages of how these collections were recognized as sacred. The Law was accepted by the 5th century B.C.; the Prophets were gathered and accepted next, by the 3rd or 2nd century B.C.; and finally, the Writings were fully recognized by the time of Jesus and the early church in the 1st century A.D..⁷

By the time Jesus was born in Bethlehem, the canon of the Old Testament was already settled and accepted. We have powerful evidence for this. The first-century Jewish historian Flavius Josephus described a canon of 22 books (which corresponds to our 39 books, as some were grouped together, like 1 and 2 Kings) and stated that “no one has been so bold as either to add anything to them, or take anything from them, or to make any change in them” for many centuries.¹² the existence of the Septuagint, a Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures made around 250-200 B.C., shows that these books were already revered and needed to be made accessible to the wider, Greek-speaking Jewish world.⁶

For a long time, it was thought that a “Council of Jamnia” around A.D.⁹⁰ formally closed the Jewish canon. While scholars today see this less as a single, decisive council and more as a confirmation of what was already universally accepted, it still points to the same truth: the Old Testament canon was firmly in place by the first century.⁶

This stability is a powerful anchor for our faith. The Old Testament was not a Christian invention or a collection of books retroactively assembled to fit a Christian story. It was the received Word of God, inherited directly from the Jewish faith. When Jesus and His disciples spoke of “the Scriptures,” they were referring to this known, established, and trusted body of work.¹⁵ This gives the Christian reader a powerful sense of continuity and historical rootedness, knowing that the foundation of their faith is not built on shifting sand but on the ancient and unchanging Word of God.

How Did Jesus and the Apostles View the Old Testament?

Although the historical evidence for the Old Testament canon is strong, the ultimate reason Christians trust these 39 books is far more personal and powerful: Jesus Christ Himself trusted them. Throughout His ministry, Jesus treated the Old Testament as the living, active, and unbreakable Word of God.

He quoted from it to defeat Satan in the wilderness (Matthew 4:1-11). He declared its divine authority when He said, “Scripture cannot be broken” (John 10:35). He taught that the entire Old Testament was ultimately about Him, telling the religious leaders, “You search the Scriptures because you think that in them you have eternal life; and it is they that bear witness about me” (John 5:39).

The most powerful moment of affirmation came after His resurrection. Walking with two disciples on the road to Emmaus, Jesus opened their minds to understand the Bible. Beginning with “the Law of Moses and all the Prophets,” He interpreted to them in all the Scriptures the things concerning Himself (Luke 24:27). Later, appearing to all the disciples, He gave His definitive stamp of approval on the entire collection, saying, “Everything written about me in the Law of Moses and the Prophets and the Psalms must be fulfilled” (Luke 24:44).² In that moment, Jesus personally ratified the complete three-part canon of the Old Testament that the Church would forever cherish.

The apostles followed their Master’s lead without hesitation. Their preaching in the book of Acts and their letters to the churches are saturated with the Old Testament. They did not see their own message as something new, but as the fulfillment of everything God had promised in the Scriptures.¹⁷ In a remarkable passage, the apostle Peter refers to Paul’s letters and puts them on the same level as the “other Scriptures” (2 Peter 3:15-16).² This shows that from the very beginning, the apostles understood that God was creating a new body of inspired writings to stand alongside the Old Testament.

For the Christian, this changes everything. Our confidence in the Old Testament is not just based on historical consensus, as strong as that is. It is based on the divine authority of Jesus Christ. We trust the Old Testament because Jesus trusted it. This transforms an academic discussion into a deeply personal assurance of faith.

What Birthed the Need for a New Testament Canon?

In the first decades after Jesus’s resurrection, the ultimate authority for Christians was not a book, but a person—or rather, a group of people. The “canon” was the living, breathing testimony of the apostles, the men who had walked with Jesus, heard His teaching, and witnessed His return from the dead.⁴ Their oral teaching was the final word. But as the Church grew and time passed, several critical challenges arose that created an urgent need to formally recognize a collection of written works.

The apostles and their disciples began to pass away. As the eyewitness generation faded, the Church needed a permanent, reliable, and unchangeable record of their teaching to guard the faith for all future generations.⁴

The Church faced waves of brutal persecution. Under Roman emperors like Diocletian in the early 300s, owning Christian Scriptures was a capital crime.⁴ Believers were forced to decide which books were the true Word of God—worth suffering and dying for—and which were merely helpful or devotional writings. This life-or-death situation made the question of the canon intensely practical.

The most major catalyst, But was the rise of heresy. Around A.D. 140, a wealthy teacher named Marcion began to spread a dangerous teaching. He claimed that the God of the Old Testament was an evil, judgmental creator-god, and that Jesus had been sent by a different, loving God to save humanity from him.⁴ To support his twisted theology, Marcion created his own “bible.” He threw out the entire Old Testament and compiled a canon consisting only of a heavily edited Gospel of Luke and ten of Paul’s letters, from which he had surgically removed any positive reference to the Old Testament or Jesus’s Jewish heritage.⁴

Marcion’s canon was a direct attack on the heart of the Christian faith. It forced the orthodox Church to stand up and respond by defining, with greater clarity than ever before, which books truly carried the authority of the apostles and represented the one true faith.⁴ The New Testament canon was not forged in the quiet halls of a library, but in the fires of adversity. It was a necessary act of defense, a way to protect the precious gospel of Jesus Christ from being corrupted and lost. In His wisdom, God used the very attacks of His enemies to accomplish His purpose of preserving His true Word for all time.

How Did the Early Church Decide Which Books Belonged?

The process of recognizing the books of the New Testament was not like following a rigid checklist. It was a gradual, Spirit-guided discernment that unfolded over centuries, as churches all over the world used, studied, and prayed over these writings. In doing so, they were guided by three core principles that helped them recognize the authentic voice of God.⁴

1. Apostolicity: Was it from an Apostle? The first and most important question was about the book’s origin. Was it written by an apostle, one of the men Jesus personally commissioned, or by a close associate who had direct access to their teaching? This included men like Mark, who worked with the apostle Peter, and Luke, the traveling companion of the apostle Paul.¹¹ This principle ensured that the New Testament was firmly rooted in the testimony of eyewitnesses.⁹
2. Orthodoxy: Did it Agree with the Faith? The second principle was theological consistency. Did the book’s teaching align with the core truths of the faith that had been passed down from the apostles? This core teaching was known as the “rule of faith”.¹¹ A book could not contradict the established understanding of who Jesus is and what He accomplished, especially His atoning death and victorious resurrection.²¹ God’s Word would not contradict itself.
3. Catholicity: Was it Universally Accepted? The third principle was about corporate reception. Was the book widely accepted and used in worship by churches throughout the known world? The word “catholic” here simply means “universal”.¹¹ If a book was only popular in one small region or with one particular group, it was unlikely to be a message from God for the entire Church. This principle reflects the beautiful truth that the Holy Spirit was at work in the 

   entire body of Christ, guiding all of God’s people together toward a unified recognition of His Word.⁹

These three principles are not an arbitrary list; they are deeply interconnected and flow from one foundational truth: Jesus Christ entrusted His message to His apostles. The apostles’ connection to Jesus gives us the principle of Apostolicity. The apostles’ core teaching gives us the principle of Orthodoxy. And the universal acceptance of that teaching by the churches the apostles founded gives us the principle of Catholicity. This provides a powerful and logical answer to the question, “How can we know they got it right?” The process was not random. It was a coherent, Spirit-led effort to remain faithful to the person and teaching of Jesus, as passed down by His chosen messengers.

Who Were the Key People and What Were the Key Moments in Finalizing the New Testament?

The story of the New Testament canon is a story of growing consensus, marked by key moments and faithful individuals whom God used to bring clarity to His Church.

An Early Snapshot: The Muratorian Fragment

One of the most exciting discoveries in Christian history is a tattered Latin manuscript called the Muratorian Fragment, found in a library in Milan, Italy.²³ Though the copy itself dates to the 8th century, scholars believe it is a translation of a much earlier Greek document from Rome, written around A.D. 170-200.²³ This fragment contains the oldest known list of New Testament books. Even at this incredibly early date, it affirms the four Gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, thirteen letters of Paul, Jude, 1 and 2 John, and Revelation—a core collection remarkably close to our final New Testament.²⁵ It also explicitly warns against and rejects heretical writings, showing that the Church was already actively discerning between true and false gospels.²³

The Hero of Orthodoxy: Athanasius of Alexandria

Athanasius was a bishop in Alexandria, Egypt, in the 4th century and a true hero of the faith. He spent his life courageously defending the truth that Jesus Christ is fully God against the widespread Arian heresy.²⁶ In the year 367, as was the custom, Athanasius wrote an Easter letter to the churches under his care. In this 39th “Festal Letter,” he did something historic. For the first time, he listed the 27 books of the New Testament—exactly the same 27 books we have in our Bibles today—and declared them to be the exclusive “springs of salvation” and the sole canon of the faith.⁵ This was not a new invention or a personal decree; it was Athanasius articulating the consensus that had been solidifying in the Church for generations, especially in the influential Christian center of Alexandria.²⁶

The Scholar and the Theologian: Jerome and Augustine

God also used brilliant minds to help solidify the canon. Around A.D. 400, a great scholar named Jerome was commissioned to create a standard Latin translation of the Bible, which became known as the Vulgate.²⁹ His work was monumental in shaping the Bible for the Western church for the next thousand years. At the same time, Augustine of Hippo, perhaps the greatest theologian in church history, was a leading voice at several regional church councils in North Africa, specifically at Hippo (A.D. 393) and Carthage (A.D.³⁹⁷ and 419).³¹ These councils formally ratified the 27-book New Testament canon that Athanasius had listed.³³ They were not creating something new, but were officially affirming the settled will of the Church.

This historical progression shows the beautiful, organic way the Holy Spirit worked. It was not a power grab by one person or council. It was the across the world and across generations, coming to a unified mind about what constituted God’s Holy Word. This builds our confidence that the New Testament we hold today is a gift from God, not just a decision of men.

What is the Catholic Church’s Stance on the Bible’s Canon?

The Catholic Church traces its understanding of the biblical canon back to the same early history, pointing to the councils of Rome (A.D. 382), Hippo (A.D. 393), and Carthage (A.D. 397) as foundational moments when the list of inspired books was affirmed.³³ The primary difference between the Catholic and Protestant Bibles lies in the Old Testament.

The Catholic Old Testament includes seven books—Tobit, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon, Sirach (also called Ecclesiasticus), Baruch, and 1 and 2 Maccabees—as well as longer versions of the books of Esther and Daniel. These are not found in the Protestant Old Testament.¹² Catholics refer to these books as the “Deuterocanonical” books, meaning “second canon.” This term does not imply they are less inspired, but simply acknowledges that their acceptance into the canon was debated for longer than the “Protocanonical” books of the Hebrew Bible.³⁷ Protestants, generally following the scholarship of Jerome who preferred the original Hebrew canon, refer to these books as the “Apocrypha,” meaning “hidden”.⁶

This difference came to a head during the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century. Leaders like Martin Luther questioned the authority of the Deuterocanonical books, in part because some passages were used to support Catholic doctrines like prayers for the dead (found in 2 Maccabees 12:46).⁶

In response, the Catholic Church convened the Council of Trent. In 1546, the council issued a formal decree, De Canonicis Scripturis, that solemnly defined the full 73-book canon (46 in the Old Testament, 27 in the New) as an absolute article of faith for all Catholics.³⁹ the council did not see itself as

adding these books to the Bible. Instead, it was definitively reaffirming the same list of books that had been included in the earlier councils of Rome, Hippo, and Florence (1442).³⁵ Trent’s decision was a powerful confirmation of a long-standing tradition in the face of a direct challenge.

Comparison of Old Testament Canons

Note: The Jewish Tanakh counts books differently (e.g., The Twelve Minor Prophets as one book), resulting in a total of 24 books, but the content is the same as the 39 books of the Protestant Old Testament. Orthodox canons can vary slightly but generally include all the books listed. 36

Why Aren’t Books Like the Gospel of Thomas in the Bible?

In recent years, there has been a lot of excitement about so-called “lost books of the Bible.” But this name is misleading. Books like the Gospel of Thomas were never “lost” and then found; scholars have known about them for centuries. They were not accidentally misplaced or maliciously hidden. They were prayerfully considered and intentionally rejected by the early Church for very good reasons.⁴²

The Gospel of Thomas is a perfect case study. It is a collection of 114 supposed sayings of Jesus, but it contains no story of His life, His miracles, His death, or His resurrection.⁴⁵ When the early Church examined this book using the guiding principles for canonicity, it failed every single test.

It failed the test of Apostolicity. Although it claims to be written by the apostle Thomas, scholars agree it was written very late, probably in the mid-to-late second century (A.D. 140-180), long after the apostles were dead. The early Church universally recognized it as a forgery.⁴⁷

And most importantly, it failed the test of Orthodoxy. Its teachings are radically different from the four biblical Gospels. The Gospel of Thomas is a Gnostic text, reflecting a mystical worldview that was completely at odds with Christianity.⁵⁰ Gnosticism taught that salvation comes not through faith in Jesus’s sacrifice, but through secret knowledge (

gnosis).⁵¹ It viewed the physical world as an evil prison to be escaped, not as God’s good creation to be redeemed.⁵¹ Some of its sayings are bizarre and contradict the character of Jesus, such as the claim that women must become male to enter the kingdom of heaven (Saying 114) or that fasting and prayer are sinful (Saying 14).⁵⁴

Finally, it failed the test of Catholicity. The Gospel of Thomas was never accepted by the universal Church. In fact, early church fathers like Irenaeus and Eusebius explicitly condemned it as heretical fiction. It was never included in any official list of canonical books.⁴⁹

The early Church rejected the Gospel of Thomas not because its leaders were afraid of what it said, but because they knew it was not the true story of the Jesus they knew, loved, and worshiped. It presents a different Jesus and a different gospel. The choice to exclude it was not an act of censorship but an act of spiritual protection. The Church was defending the historical, life-giving truth of the gospel from a philosophy that would have turned it into a confusing, non-historical myth. They were protecting the treasure, not hiding the truth.

A Sacred Trust, A Lasting Word

The journey of the Bible into our hands is a breathtaking story of God’s providence. We see the gradual unfolding of the Old Testament, a collection of Scriptures so trusted that it was ratified by Jesus Christ Himself. We see the birth of the New Testament from the apostles’ testimony, forged in the fires of persecution and clarified by the challenges of heresy. We see the Holy Spirit guiding God’s people all across the world, over hundreds of years, to recognize and affirm the same collection of books as His holy Word.

The formation of the Bible was not a fragile, haphazard, or political process. It is a powerful testament to a God who not only inspires His Word but also faithfully preserves it. The next time you pick up your Bible, hold it with a renewed sense of awe and gratitude. It is not just an ancient book. It is a divine library, a sacred trust, and the living Word of God, faithfully delivered into your hands by the God who loves you.